Luis A. Marrero, July 29, 2024
… two-thirds of people are convinced they’re being lied to by journalists, heads of government and business leaders. ~ Edelman Trust Report ~
Unfortunately, most countries have made little progress in tackling corruption. ~ Transparency International ~
A population will only experience high levels of overall life satisfaction if its people are also pro-social, healthy, and prosperous. In other words, its people must have high levels of what Aristotle called ‘eudaimonia’. So at the level of society, life satisfaction and eudaimonia go hand-in-hand. ~ World Happiness Report ~
The World Happiness Report highlights the benefits of being prosocial. However, other key indexes from respected sources reveal that a lack of integrity and corruption hinders achieving this ideal state.
If we understand what leads to an ideal life, why do so many people engage in behaviors that don’t work? Why, if we are inundated with solutions, do problems persist? To tackle these challenges, we will first examine the empirical data to make sense of it. Second, we will explore some factors contributing to the lack of universal well-being. Third, we will investigate how leaders and their practices contribute to this disconnect, particularly focusing on the role of dark leadership and its impact on well-being and prosperity. Finally, we will propose some logoteleological (i.e., meaningful purpose psychology or MP) solutions, emphasizing the crucial role of this approach, and a call to action.
The Data: A Look at Current Reality
As the saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” Let’s have pictures from reliable sources to help us understand the current state.
This color-coded figure describes countries following a spectrum from very happy to miserable. What, objectively, contrasts between the very happy and the miserable? Let us consider what the top five happiest countries have in common.
The top five happiest countries—Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Sweden, and Israel—share several common policies and attributes that contribute to their citizens’ well-being:
Quality Healthcare Systems:
Finland and its Nordic neighbors prioritize efficient, publicly funded healthcare systems. Accessible healthcare contributes to overall life satisfaction.
These countries invest in preventive care, mental health services, and equitable access to medical facilities.[I]
2. Low Corruption Levels:
Transparency and low corruption are hallmarks of these nations. Trust in government institutions fosters a sense of security and well-being.
Iceland, for instance, has strong anti-corruption measures and transparent governance. [ii]
3. Social Support Networks:
4. Income Equality:
Lower levels of income inequality contribute to happiness. Policies that address wealth disparities enhance overall well-being.
Finland and its neighbors prioritize income equality, ensuring a fair distribution of resources. [iv]
5. Personal Freedom and Autonomy:
Citizens in these countries enjoy personal freedom, autonomy, and individual rights. Policies protect civil liberties and promote self-determination.
Sweden and Denmark are known for their emphasis on personal freedoms and human rights.[v]
6. Reliable Public Transport:
Efficient and affordable public transportation systems reduce stress and enhance quality of life. These countries invest in sustainable mobility options.
Finland stands out with its reliable public transport network.[vi]
The shared focus on health, trust, and social support contributes to their citizens’ happiness. These are attributes that meaningful purpose psychology or MP describes as meaningful.[vii]
OK. Now, we know empirically what works.
The next logical question is, why isn’t the rest of the world as happy as these five countries? It is reasonable to conclude that they do not apply these best practices and instead are doing something that does not work to their advantage. Why would leaders and their citizens or members of organizations choose the meaningless path?
If you compare the previous two graphics, you will notice the obvious: there is a direct correlation and causation between low corruption and happy countries. On the other hand, unhappy countries are plagued by corrupt leaders and practices. According to Transparency International, “Unfortunately, most countries have made little progress in tackling corruption. The global average remains unchanged at 43 for the twelfth consecutive year, with over two-thirds of countries scoring below 50.[i] Leaders must prioritize justice systems and accountability to combat corruption effectively.”
According to the Edelman Trust Barometer, “Over two-thirds of countries score below 50 out of 100, which strongly indicates that they have serious corruption problems. The global average is stuck at only 43, while the vast majority of countries have made no progress or declined in the last decade. What is more, 23 countries fell to their lowest scores to date this year.”[ii]
Contributing Factors
Let’s explore some factors contributing to the lack of universal well-being. One significant factor is the lack of honesty and ethics.
Unfortunately, according to the Edelman Trust Report, our credibility problem is getting worse with time. Credible studies indicate certain populations are becoming more vulnerable to lies and misinformation. For example, a study from the University of Kansas found that vulnerable populations, often those most severely affected by crises, are at a high risk of consuming and sharing misinformation online.[i] These populations also struggle to assess the credibility of information.[ii]
Additionally, research from the University of Florida and other sources highlight that older adults are particularly susceptible to deception, including scams and fake news. [iii] [iv] [v] However, the problem is not just about vulnerable citizens being victimized. The trust problem reaches the whole of society. Studies indicate that the general public is increasingly vulnerable to fake news and misinformation, including lies by leaders. For instance, a study published by the Harvard Kennedy School found that exposure to fake news is linked to lower trust in mainstream media across party lines.[vi] This decline in trust makes people more susceptible to misinformation.
Another study published in PLOS ONE identified several factors that contribute to individuals’ belief in fake news, including cognitive styles, predispositions, and differences in news and information literacy.[vii] These factors can affect the general public’s ability to discern truth from falsehoods.
Overall, the increasing prevalence of misinformation and the erosion of trust in traditional media sources are making the general public more vulnerable to fake news and lies by leaders.
At its core, the contributing factor to corruption is the unwillingness to self-regulate and do what is meaningful,[viii] which is the failure to follow ethical and moral standards.[ix] [x]
The Root Cause: The Dark Triad in Leadership
The “Dark Triad” is a psychological concept that describes three notably negative personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy.[i] [ii] [iii] The term was coined by researchers Delroy L. Paulhus and Kevin M. Williams in 2002. These traits share common malevolent features, such as emotional coldness, manipulativeness, and a lack of empathy.
Narcissism: Characterized by grandiosity, pride, egotism, and a lack of empathy.
Machiavellianism: This ideology involves manipulating and exploitation of others, indifference to morality, and a focus on self-interest and deception.
Psychopathy: Marked by continuous antisocial behavior, impulsivity, selfishness, callousness, and a lack of remorse.
These traits are often studied together because they tend to overlap and can lead to harmful behaviors and social outcomes.[iv]
Let’s now investigate how leaders and their practices contribute to this disconnect, particularly focusing on the role of dark leadership and its impact on well-being and prosperity. The thesis is that well-being and happiness fail to arise under corrupt systems managed by the dark leaders who lead them and by those who enable the dark leaders.
What is Dark Leadership?
Dark leadership refers to a style of leadership where an individual exhibits manipulative, self-centered, and deceitful behaviors. These leaders often prioritize their own interests over the well-being of their followers, using charm and cunning to achieve their goals. They exploit others, lack empathy, and create a toxic environment that undermines trust and collaboration. Their core agenda is to manipulate others with a desire for power, control, and personal gain. They master the art of lying and deception and playing one group of people against another.
To reveal the essence of dark leadership, we need to understand narcissism, Machiavellianism, and pathological symptoms.[v]
The Narcissistic Dark Leader
Narcissism comes from the Greek name Narcissus. In Greek mythology, Narcissus was a hunter renowned for his extraordinary beauty. He rejected all romantic advances, including those from the nymph Echo, who was left heartbroken and faded away until only her voice remained.[vi]
As a punishment for his arrogance and lack of empathy, the goddess Nemesis led Narcissus to a pool where he saw his own reflection. Unaware that it was merely an image, he fell deeply in love with it. Unable to tear himself away, he eventually died by the poolside, consumed by his unrequited love.[vii]
According to the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition), narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), a constant need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. This pattern begins in early adulthood and is present in various contexts. The DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing NPD include:
Grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commensurate achievements).
Preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love.
The belief that they are “special” and unique and can only be understood by, or should associate with, other special or high-status people (or institutions).
Requires excessive admiration.
Sense of entitlement (i.e., unreasonable expectations of especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with their expectations).
Interpersonally exploitative (i.e., takes advantage of others to achieve their own ends).
Lacks empathy (i.e., is unwilling to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others).
Often envious of others or believes that others are envious of them.
Shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes.
These traits must cause significant impairments in personality functioning and be relatively stable over time and consistent across situations. [i] In other words, narcissism is often viewed on a spectrum. This means that individuals can exhibit varying degrees of narcissistic traits, ranging from mild to severe. The concept of a spectrum helps to understand that narcissistic traits can be present in different intensities and combinations in different people.[ii]
For example, some individuals may have mild narcissistic traits that do not significantly impact their daily lives or relationships, while others may exhibit more severe traits that lead to a diagnosis of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD). This spectrum approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of narcissism and its impact on individuals.[iii]
The Machiavellian Dark Leader
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) was an Italian diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance. He is best known for his political treatise, The Prince (Il Principe), written around 1513 but published posthumously in 1532. This work has earned him a reputation as the father of modern political philosophy and political science.
Machiavelli served as a senior official in the Florentine Republic, where he was involved in diplomatic and military affairs. His writings, including The Prince and Discourses on Livy, reflect his belief that politics often involves deception, treachery, and crime. He argued that rulers should be pragmatic and, if necessary, unscrupulous to maintain power and achieve beneficial outcomes.
Machiavelli’s ideas have been both influential and controversial, shaping political thought and inspiring debates about ethics and governance. [i] [ii] [iii]
…for a man who wishes to act entirely up to his professions of virtue soon meets with what destroys him among so much that is evil.
Hence it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do wrong, and to make use of it or according to necessity.
And again, he [the Prince] need not make himself uneasy at incurring a reproach for those vices without which the state can only be saved with difficulty, for if everything is considered carefully, it will be found that something which looks like virtue, if followed, would be his ruin; whilst something else, which looks like vice, yet followed brings him security and prosperity.”
~ Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) ~
Hence, “Machiavellianism, … represents a personality characterized by a cold pragmatism, a strategic manipulation of others, and often a blatant disregard for morality.”[iv] Let’s examine the characteristics of a Machiavellian personality.
Machiavellianism is a personality trait characterized by manipulative, deceitful, and self-serving behaviors. While it’s not a clinical syndrome, individuals with high levels of Machiavellianism often exhibit the following symptoms:
Manipulativeness: They frequently manipulate others to achieve their own goals.
Deceitfulness: They are prone to lying and deception.
Self-interest: They prioritize their own interests over those of others.
Lack of morality: They often disregard social norms and ethical considerations.
Charm and charisma: They use charm and charisma to influence and control others.
Distrust of others: They have an inordinate distrust of others’ intentions.
Desire for power: They seek out positions of power and influence.
Revenge-seeking: They may desire revenge in response to perceived wrongs.[v]
These traits lead to toxic relationships and environments, as Machiavellian individuals often exploit and manipulate those around them.
The Psychopathic Dark Leader
Psychopathy is a personality construct characterized by a persistent pattern of antisocial, impulsive, manipulative, and sometimes aggressive behavior. Individuals with psychopathy often exhibit a lack of empathy, remorse, and guilt, which enables them to be highly manipulative and deceitful.[vi] Key traits of psychopathy include:
Superficial charm: They can appear normal and even charming on the surface.
Grandiose sense of self-worth: They have an inflated view of their own importance.
Pathological lying: They frequently lie and deceive others.
Lack of empathy: They are unable to understand or share the feelings of others.
Impulsivity: They act on a whim without considering the consequences.
Irresponsibility: They fail to accept responsibility for their actions.
Criminal tendencies: They may engage in a variety of criminal activities.[vii]
Psychopathy is often assessed using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist, which includes a range of traits scored on a scale to determine the severity of psychopathic tendencies.[viii]
The Enablers
Dark Leaders often rise to power because like-minded individuals with similar psychological profiles support their cause through the dark leader’s means. The dark leader is useful in some way, allowing them to meet their wants—be it prestige, influence, power, status, or financial gain. Said differently, the enablers support the dark leader because they are willing to give their loyalty for a reward – even when the outcomes harm people. Some use the term “useful idiots”- a term attributed to Vladimir Lenin, who used it to describe non-communists who were seen as susceptible to communist propaganda and manipulation.[ix]
Followers include people who are bullied by fear and, as a rule, are victimized by the dark leader when they are no longer useful to his or her ends. Enablers might be investors who are happy with their returns while oblivious to how employees and other stakeholders might be treated. Within organizations, top management might tolerate the dark leader because they can bully their way to achieving results when achieving results is what matters. Once the dark leader becomes a liability, they will also be disposed of by another dark leader with greater power.
Christopher R. Browning, describing the atrocities of Nazi Germany, citing Thomas Kühne, described this phenomenon eloquently: “Nothing makes people stick together better than committing a crime together. And second was the pernicious Nazi invention that Kühne dubbed the ‘morality of immorality.” Browning concludes by explaining the final consequence: “For Germans at large, the ‘outcome was the national brotherhood of mass murder – Hitler’s community.’”[x]
It should be obvious that what they all have in common is the lack of a virtuous moral code regulating their behavior.[xi]
Impact of Dark Leadership
Combined, the dark triad leadership traits can and do intersect in leaders’ personality profiles—a poisonous psychopathological mix. Unfortunately, those who practice the dark triad’s behaviors in some way—regardless of where they fall on the spectrum—bring suffering and misery to themselves and others. Having these toxic traits leads to interpersonal difficulties, depression, anxiety, social isolation, and overall life dissatisfaction. Their lives are exhausting to themselves and others, trapped by a constant fight-flight response that negatively impacts their well-being.
The correlation between the previous graphics of national states of corruption and happiness speaks volumes. Socially, dark leadership diminishes genuine reciprocity, cooperation, and empathy. In addition, declining employee engagement continues to be a serious problem at work. According to Gallup, in 2023, only 33% of employees were engaged, a downward trend from a peak of 36% in 2020. The dark triad also has an adverse effect on mental health, resulting in reduced productivity, impaired professional relationships, increased conflict with colleagues, low morale, and work absenteeism.
Solutions and Call to Action
Solutions require specific approaches depending on where the dark leader falls on the spectrum. Those on the high end need clinical help. However, the condition itself prevents the dark leader from seeking help. These individuals resist acknowledging there is something wrong with them and go to great lengths to prove otherwise. For instance, by denying, rationalizing, transferring, and projecting. However, here are some ways dark leaders can be helped:
Inform, educate, commit, and uphold high and correct humane standards. Ensure that values and standards are validated as prosocial and that they lead to well-being. Whether on a government’s system of laws, a company’s policies and procedures, or other norms pertaining to good manners, civility, and mutual respect, all concerns need to buy into and follow virtuous values. [xii] Make sure you explain the difference between dark leadership and virtuous leadership and their consequences.
Accountability. The parties need to hold themselves and others accountable.
Stop enabling. This requires us all to inventory our beliefs, attributions, values, and standards by which we view others. Otherwise, we can be part of and contribute to the problem. The goal is not to reward and follow those who have corrupt and demeaning intentions. Instead, the goal is to stop dark leadership on its track.
Prevent. Learn and make readily available information that any commonsense person can grasp on the symptoms of the dark triad. The goal is to increase the individual’s ability to detect lies, misinformation, and manipulation.
Be Selective. Do not associate or hire people with these tendencies. They will make your and everyone else’s life miserable.
Model. Invest in your own development so that you are free of mental toxicities and instead can lead and live a meaningful life.[xiii] We should aim to cultivate virtuous citizens in both current and future generations, ensuring mutual prosperity and well-being for all.
To learn more about creating meaningful conditions in life and work, contact us and let us know how we can help. Contact | Boston Institute for Meaningful Purpose (bostonimp.com)
© 2024 Luis A. Marrero. Boston Institute for Meaningful Purpose
[1] bostonimp.com/post/meaningful-and-meaningless-meanings-what-s-the-difference-and-why-does-it-matter
[1] 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index: Explore the… - Transparency.org and Edelman Trust Barometer 2022: What you need to know | World Economic Forum (weforum.org)
[1] Study shows vulnerable populations with less education more likely to believe, share misinformation (phys.org)
[1] Are older adults more vulnerable to scams? What psychologists have learned about who’s most susceptible, and when (theconversation.com)
[1] The Conversation: Are older adults more vulnerable to scams? - News - University of Florida (ufl.edu)
[1] John, Timothy. Dark Psychology and Manipulation Defense. 2024
[1] Unable to tear himself away, he eventually died by the poolside, consumed by his unrequited love
[1] Niccolo Machiavelli | Beliefs, Books, The Prince, Philosophy, Accomplishments, & Facts | Britannica
[1] John, Timothy. Dark Psychology and Manipulation Defense. 2024. Page 34
[1] 1: Britannica 2: Mind Help 3: Psychology Today
[1] Browning, Christopher R. Ordinary Men. New York: HarperCollins. 2017. P. 241
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